GenomeThe complete set of genetic instructions encoded in DNA (or RNA in some viruses) that specifies all the information needed to build and operate a living organism.
Synthetic GenomeA genome designed on a computer and assembled from chemically synthesized DNA fragments, encoding precisely specified genetic instructions rather than those inherited through natural evolution.
Chassis OrganismA simplified host cell used as the platform for synthetic biology applications, analogous to a computer's operating system on which applications are installed.
BioBricksStandardized, interchangeable genetic parts with defined functions (promoters, coding sequences, terminators) that can be combined to build genetic circuits, maintained in the Registry of Standard Biological Parts.
ProtocellA simple artificial cell-like structure that encapsulates functional molecules within a membrane boundary, used to study the origins of life and as building blocks for bottom-up synthetic cells.
JCVI-syn3.0The minimal synthetic organism created by the J. Craig Venter Institute in 2016 with only 473 genes, representing the smallest genome capable of sustaining free-living cellular life.
SynthiaThe informal name for JCVI-syn1.0, the first organism with a completely synthetic genome, created by Craig Venter's team in 2010 by synthesizing the entire Mycoplasma mycoides genome.
XenobiologyA subfield of synthetic biology that explores biological systems built with non-natural biochemistry, including alternative genetic polymers (XNA), non-canonical amino acids, and novel metabolic pathways.
Genetic Toggle SwitchOne of the first synthetic genetic circuits, published in 2000 by Gardner et al., consisting of two mutually repressing genes that can be flipped between two stable states like a light switch.
RepressilatorA synthetic genetic oscillator created by Elowitz and Leibler (2000) consisting of three genes that repress each other in a cycle, producing periodic fluctuations in gene expression like a biological clock.
CRISPR-Cas9A gene editing tool adapted from bacterial immune systems that allows precise cutting and modification of DNA sequences, revolutionizing both natural genome engineering and synthetic biology.
Metabolic EngineeringThe optimization of metabolic pathways within organisms to increase production of desired substances such as biofuels, pharmaceuticals, or industrial chemicals.
Directed EvolutionA laboratory technique that mimics natural selection to evolve proteins or organisms with desired properties, awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2018 (Frances Arnold).
BiocontainmentSafety measures designed to prevent synthetic organisms from surviving or reproducing outside controlled laboratory conditions, such as engineered auxotrophies and kill switches.
Cell-Free Synthetic BiologyPerforming synthetic biology reactions outside of living cells using purified enzymes and cell extracts, enabling rapid prototyping of genetic circuits without the complications of a living cellular environment.
Orthogonal SystemA synthetic biological system that operates independently of the host cell's natural machinery, preventing cross-talk and enabling safe containment of engineered functions.
AuxotrophyA genetic modification that makes an organism dependent on an externally supplied nutrient not found in the natural environment, serving as a biocontainment mechanism for synthetic organisms.
Gene DriveA genetic engineering technology that biases inheritance to spread a gene through a population faster than normal Mendelian inheritance, with potential applications in pest control and disease vector elimination.
Codon OptimizationRedesigning the DNA sequence encoding a protein to use codons preferred by the host organism, improving translation efficiency and protein yield in synthetic biology applications.
Gibson AssemblyA molecular cloning method developed by Daniel Gibson that enables the joining of multiple DNA fragments in a single isothermal reaction, critical for assembling synthetic genomes from smaller parts.
Quorum SensingA cell-to-cell communication system used by bacteria (and exploited by synthetic biologists) where cells secrete and detect signaling molecules to coordinate group behaviors based on population density.
iGEM CompetitionThe International Genetically Engineered Machine competition, an annual undergraduate synthetic biology competition founded by Drew Endy and others at MIT that has trained thousands of young synthetic biologists worldwide.
Genome Project-writeAn international scientific initiative led by George Church and others to synthesize complete genomes, including a full human genome, from scratch using chemical DNA synthesis.
BioreactorA vessel in which biological reactions (fermentation, cell growth, metabolite production) are carried out under controlled conditions, essential for scaling up synthetic biology from the lab to industrial production.
Synthetic AuxotrophyAn engineered genetic dependency where a synthetic organism requires a non-natural amino acid or nutrient not found in the environment, serving as a biocontainment mechanism that prevents survival outside the lab.
Kill SwitchA genetic circuit engineered into synthetic organisms that triggers cell death in response to specific environmental signals (e.g., absence of an inducer molecule), providing an active biocontainment safety mechanism.